Tetanus by&nbsp;<a href="http://www.nyphotographic.com/">Nick Youngson</a>&nbsp;<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/">CC BY-SA 3.0</a>&nbsp;<a href="https://pix4free.org/">Pix4free</a>Tetanus probably doesn't come to mind when you think of dreadful diseases, and you may not give tetanus injections much thought unless you step on a rusty nail. The symptoms of tetanus can be subtle and may not appear until several days after infection. People may mistake these symptoms for other less severe conditions, such as muscle strain. Yet, tetanus is one of the deadliest conditions on earth.&nbsp;<h2>What is tetanus?</h2>Tetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a severe bacterial infection that damages the neurological system. It causes tightening of neck and jaw muscles, which can make opening the mouth or swallowing difficult.&nbsp;<h2>What is the source of tetanus?</h2>Tetanus is caused by the&nbsp;Clostridium tetani bacterium, which is present in dust, soil, and animal waste. The bacterium enters the body through a wound or cut, producing the tetanus toxin. The toxin affects the nerves, causing the life-threatening symptoms associated with tetanus.&nbsp;<h3>How is tetanus contracted?</h3>Tetanus can be contracted in different ways. Such ways include:<ul><li>Contamination of a wound with dirt or materials containing tetanus bacteria.</li><li>Injury with contaminated blades, needles, and surgical instruments.</li><li>Transmission from an infected mother to a child through the placenta, contaminated cervix, or direct contact with an open wound.</li><li>The mother, who transmits the immunity to her newborn, can be protected against it by receiving an immunization for a few days after birth.&nbsp;</li></ul><h2>What are the symptoms of tetanus?</h2>Depending on the individual, tetanus symptoms might appear days to weeks after infection. The first sign is usually “lockjaw” or muscle spasms in the jaw. Other symptoms of tetanus include:<ul><li>Fever and sweating</li><li>Widespread muscle stiffness and pain</li><li>Seizures characterized by jerking or staring</li><li>Difficulty in swallowing</li><li>Sudden and involuntary muscle contractions&nbsp; often in the abdomen&nbsp;</li><li>Constipation</li><li>Headaches&nbsp;</li><li>Changes in blood pressure and heart rate, etc.</li></ul><h2>What are the complications of tetanus?</h2>Tetanus can readily degenerate into serious complications or death if an infected person does not receive immediate care. Immediate complications include:<ul><li>Aspiration pneumonia</li><li>Pulmonary embolism</li><li>Laryngospasm</li><li>Breathing difficulty</li></ul>In extreme circumstances, tetanus can also result in convulsions and respiratory collapse, which may lead to death.<h2>How to prevent tetanus</h2>Tetanus can be effectively prevented through vaccination. The recommended vaccine is the combination DTP (diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis) or TdaP vaccine, which protects against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus.&nbsp;Babies require three doses of DTaP, administered at ages two, four, and six months, followed by booster shots at ages 15 to 18 months and 4 to 6 years.&nbsp;Preteens should receive a Tdap shot between 11 and 12 years old. Pregnant women should get a Tdap shot during the early third trimester to protect their baby from whooping cough. Adults who have never received the vaccine should get a Tdap shot, followed by a Td or Tdap booster every ten years.<figure class="image"><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_125d76cf94.png"></figure>Photo by&nbsp;<a href="https://unsplash.com/@cdc?utm_content=creditCopyText&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_source=unsplash">CDC</a> on&nbsp;<a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-doing-syringe-on-woman-wearing-blue-shirt-9uo3cLLo0IM?utm_content=creditCopyText&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_source=unsplash">Unsplash</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<h2>What are the treatment options?</h2>Treatment for tetanus varies depending on the severity of the symptoms. It usually involves a combination of therapies and medications, including antibiotics, to eliminate the bacteria from the body. These options include:<ul><li>Tetanus toxoid injection: The injection contains a treated form of the tetanus toxin, called tetanus toxoid, that serves as an&nbsp;emergency immune booster against the effects of tetanus toxin.&nbsp;</li><li>Antibiotics:&nbsp;While tetanus toxoid nullifies the tetanus toxin, antibiotic treatment helps manage any secondary infections that can develop due to the wound. The type of infection and the patient's medical background will determine the appropriate antibiotic.&nbsp;</li></ul><figure class="image"><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_d31181ed5c.png"></figure><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bottle_of_tetanus_antitoxin,_Germany._Full_view,_graduated_g_Wellcome_L0058962_(cropped).jpg">See page for author</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">CC BY 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons<ul><li>Wound dressing:&nbsp;Open wounds can be cleaned with moderate antiseptic or soap and water. Surgical debridement could be required if the wound contains dead tissues.&nbsp;</li><li>Use of muscle relaxants:&nbsp;To alleviate the stiffness and spasms caused by tetanus, muscle relaxants can be administered. These medications work by reducing the severity of muscle spasms and decreasing the risk of fractures and other associated injuries.</li><li>Supportive care: Tetanus patients need supportive care, which could involve giving oxygen and IV fluids and medications, food, water, and oxygen. If the situation worsens, the patient may need specialized care in an intensive care unit (ICU).</li></ul><h2>Vaccination can protect you from tetanus</h2>Tetanus is a life-threatening disease contracted when the bacterium&nbsp;Clostridium tetani&nbsp;enters the body through cuts or wounds. The bacterium produces a toxin with deadly effects. The best approach to avoid tetanus is vaccination and maintaining good wound hygiene. Infected individuals should seek prompt medical care.

Minor injuries can turn deadly due to tetanus. Learn how you can prevent it.

Tetanus

Disease prevention and management

<a href="https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/pills-medical-material-arrangement_24482234.htm#page=4&amp;query=mockup%20health&amp;position=7&amp;from_view=keyword&amp;track=ais_user&amp;uuid=5497b101-7380-4683-9106-4480e074f064">Image by Freepik</a>Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), also known as sexually transmitted infections (STIs), are illnesses or infections caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites and are often contracted through sexual interaction.&nbsp;These infections can affect people of all ages and genders and can result in serious health challenges if left untreated.The symptoms of sexually transmitted diseases, their prevention, and treatment options will all be covered in greater detail in this article.<h2>Types of STDs</h2>There are many types of STDs, but some of the most common ones include the following:&nbsp;<ol><li>Chlamydia: Chlamydia is a common sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by bacteria.</li><li>Genital herpes: Genital herpes caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV).</li><li>Gonorrhoea: Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the organism that causes gonorrhoea, a bacterial sexually transmitted infection.&nbsp;</li><li>HPV: Human Papillomavirus is a viral infection that commonly causes skin or mucous membrane growths (warts).</li><li>Pubic lice are parasitic insects found in the pubic or genital area.</li><li>Syphilis: Syphilis is an infection caused by bacteria which most often spreads through sexual contact.&nbsp;</li><li>Trichomoniasis: Trichomoniasis is a common sexually transmitted infection caused by a parasite</li></ol><h2>Symptoms of STDs&nbsp;</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_2e68622f56.png"><a href="https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/mock-up-blank-poster-picture-frame-wood-wall_1382911.htm#fromView=search&amp;page=2&amp;position=25&amp;uuid=0307f5ca-50fa-4794-8b60-36b41a46318b">Image by tirachard on Freepik</a>STD symptoms can vary depending on the nature of infection. However, some frequent ones include:<ul><li>Painful or frequent urination</li><li>Abnormal vaginal or penile discharge</li><li>Genital sores, bumps, or blisters</li><li>Pain during sex</li><li>Itching or burning in the genital area</li><li>Rectal pain or discharge</li><li>Sore throat or swollen glands</li></ul>Note that not everyone with an STD exhibits symptoms, so regular STD testing is vital.<h2>Prevention of STDs</h2>Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are mostly spread through unprotected sex.&nbsp;Therefore, maintaining good sexual health requires preventing the transmission of STDs. The prevention of STDs includes;<ul><li>Practice safe sex</li></ul>Using condoms can prevent STD transmission. However, no one technique is 100% successful. Therefore, employing additional preventative measures is crucial.<img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_79cff9cf43.png"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-pulling-a-condom-out-of-a-pocket-6474007/">Photo by cottonbro studio from Pexels</a><ul><li>Get vaccinated</li></ul>Human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis B vaccines are available to prevent certain STDs. Discuss this with your healthcare provider to know the ones available for you.<ul><li>Avoid multiple sexual partners</li></ul>Having sex with multiple sexual partners increases the likelihood of contracting STDs like HIV, gonorrhoea, syphilis, etc<ol><li>Have an honest communication with your partner&nbsp;</li></ol>Ask about your partner's sexual history and share your own. Open and honest conversation about one’s sexual health can reduce the risk of contracting STDs<ul><li>Get tested</li></ul>Regular testing is essential to knowing your status because many STDs do not have symptoms.&nbsp;<ul><li>Avoid sharing personal products</li></ul>Personal products like towels, razors, and sex toys can carry STI-causing germs and transmit it to others or spread it from them. .&nbsp;<ul><li>Look out for the signs and symptoms</li></ul>Understand the warning signs and symptoms of STDs, which include vaginal sores, discharge, and pain during intercourse. Get checked out and start receiving treatment immediately if you feel any symptoms.<h2>Risk factors for STDS</h2>Research has shown that the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) has been impacted by sociological and demographic factors, such as family life and urbanisation (Patterson-Lomba et al., 2015), meaning that factors like family life and urbanisation contribute to the prevalence of STDs. For example, urbanisation can increase the prevalence of STDs due to higher population density and increased social interactions, while family dynamics can also affect the spread of STDs based on communication and education about sexual health.&nbsp;Therefore it is important to understand these risk factors and take measures to reduce the risk of acquiring an STI.&nbsp;Having unprotected sex raises the chances of getting an STD. Condoms are the most efficient way to prevent STD transmission.The following are some&nbsp; other STD risk factors:<ul><li>Having multiple sexual partners&nbsp;</li></ul>Having multiple sexual partners increases your chance of contracting an STD. Your risk increases as you have more sexual partners.<ul><li>Early sexual activity</li></ul>Those who start having sex at a young age may increase the risk of contracting an STD. This is because they may lack the skills or understanding necessary to engage in safe sex.<ul><li>History of STDs</li></ul>Individuals who have had an STD in the past are more likely to have one again.<ul><li>Being in a same-sex relationship&nbsp;</li></ul>Men who have sex with men (MSMs) are more likely to contract some STDs, including HIV, gonorrhoea, and syphilis.<ul><li>Drug and alcohol abuse</li></ul>Using drugs and alcohol can result in unsafe sexual conduct, such as having intercourse without a condom, which raises the possibility of contracting an STD.<ul><li>Weak immune system</li></ul>Those with compromised immune systems, such as those with HIV or cancer, are more likely to contract STDs.<img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_ad9251b1dd.png"><a href="https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/high-angle-unheatlhy-habits_8872822.htm#fromView=search&amp;page=1&amp;position=0&amp;uuid=0edfec20-3df3-4030-a938-2ee9ea19d794">Image by freepik</a><h2>Treatment of STDs</h2>It's critical to see a physician when you suspect an STD. Antibiotics and antiviral drugs can easily treat many STDs, because if the disease is left untreated, they can have significant health impacts.Antibiotics can treat bacterial sexually transmitted diseases if treatment starts early enough. Although there is no treatment for viral STDs, medications can help manage symptoms.<h2>Conclusion</h2>Sexually transmitted diseases are a serious health concern that can have long-term effects.It's critical to get tested for sexually transmitted diseases on a regular basis, particularly if you have several relationships. Being tested is the only way to find out whether one has an STD, as some may not show any symptoms. Notifying sexual partners of the diagnosis of an STD is very important because it allows them to get tested and receive treatment if needed.Always remember that getting tested for STDs is nothing to fear, it is always preferable to know your status rather than put your health and the health of others in danger.

From gonorrhea to syphilis, STDs are common, but they are preventable. Learn how to protect yourself and others.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Lifestyle and Wellness

Health News and Research

Women's Health

Men's Health

Vaccines save lives. Here’s how to safely immunize your child and protect them from serious diseases.

Vaccination: A Vital Tool in the Fight Against Diseases in Nigeria

<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_young_boy_taking_after_an_injection_1.jpg">Kwameghana</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia CommonsMeningitis is a serious medical problem that many people often confuse its symptoms with common sicknesses. It can quickly become life-threatening as a result of delayed essential treatment. This article will provide information on meningitis, its common symptoms and what to do in cases of suspected infection.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What is Meningitis?</h2>Meningitis refers to inflammation of the meninges. The meninges contain three layers of protective membranes, the pia mater, dura mater, and arachnoid mater, that cover the brain and spinal cord. These membranes provide support and maintain cerebrospinal fluid circulation.Meningitis in children has similar symptoms to meningitis in adults. Still, the disease is more common in children under the age of one.&nbsp;Neonatal and infant meningitis is often deadlier than in older children due to their immature immune systems and underdeveloped protective barriers. Infants may not exhibit typical symptoms, making diagnosis more challenging.&nbsp;Rapid progression of the disease can also lead to severe complications or death if not treated quickly.<h2>Risk factors of meningitis in children</h2>&nbsp;A couple of factors have been seen to increase the chances that a child develops meningitis, and some of them include:&nbsp;<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">General Risk Factors:</h3><ol><li>Missed&nbsp;vaccinations:&nbsp;Meningitis is preventable through vaccines. Children who miss their vaccinations are at higher risk of infection.</li><li>Age:&nbsp;Children under 5 are particularly vulnerable, while bacterial meningitis is most common in adults under 20.</li><li>Crowded&nbsp;living environments:&nbsp;Meningitis-causing bacteria spread &nbsp;quickly in crowded&nbsp;rooms and gatherings, increasing infection rates among children.</li><li>Extreme&nbsp;heat and&nbsp;humidity: Viral and bacterial meningitis thrive in hot, humid climates, raising the risk of outbreaks.</li><li>Weak&nbsp;immune&nbsp;system:&nbsp;children&nbsp;who are not breastfed or those on chemotherapy or medications that suppress their immune&nbsp;systems are more susceptible to meningitis-causing organisms.</li></ol><h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Specific Risk Factors:</h3><ol><li>Infection from Mothers:&nbsp;children born to mothers with infections, such as Group B Streptococcus, are at a greater risk of developing meningitis.</li><li>Neural Tube Defects:&nbsp;The neural tube gives rise to the future spinal cord and offers a direct channel to the brain and the meninges. Children born with neural tube defects, therefore, are at&nbsp;a higher&nbsp;risk of having meningitis.</li></ol><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Causes of meningitis&nbsp;</h2>Meningitis is caused by germs,&nbsp;which could either be bacteria or viral.&nbsp;Hence, meningitis is grouped according to the cause. They include;<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Bacterial meningitis</h3><ol><li>Escherichia coli</li><li>Streptococcus pneumonia</li><li>Group B&nbsp;Streptococcus</li><li>Listeria monocytogenes</li><li>Neisseria meningitides</li><li>Haemophilus&nbsp;influenza</li></ol><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Viral meningitis&nbsp;</h2><ol><li>Polioviruses</li><li>Herpes simplex virus</li><li>Paramyxovirus</li></ol>In addition to bacteria, fungi like&nbsp;Candida,&nbsp;Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformas, and Borrelia burgdoferi are other important cause of meningitis, even though fungi are not as common as viruses and bacteria.<h2>How is meningitis transmitted</h2>The spread of meningitis is mostly through sneezing, coughing, and kissing. Children acquire the infection when they inhale germs released by an infected person.&nbsp;Once the germ enters the child's nose or throat, it&nbsp;spreads through the bloodstream and then&nbsp;makes its way to the meninges, where it causes inflammation and the accompanying symptoms of inflammation.&nbsp;In low- and middle-income countries where many people live in crowded rooms, leading to overcrowding, it is much easier for these pathogens to be carried, resulting in many children coming down with meningitis.&nbsp;If we take Nigeria as a case study, the country has an estimated population of 193 million people spread across 36 states, making it the most populous country in&nbsp;Africa. This factor has been highlighted by Nigeria being one of the countries&nbsp; considered the “meningitis belt.”&nbsp;According to the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2023-DON454#:~:text=Situation%20at%20a%20glance,the%20brain%20and%20spinal%20cord.">World Health Organization</a>, between 1 October 2022 and 16 April 2023, Nigeria reported a total of 1686 suspected cases of meningitis, including 124 deaths, for a case fatality ratio (CFR) of 7%.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How do you know that your child has meningitis</h2>Meningitis&nbsp;in children&nbsp;usually starts with headache and fever. These two symptoms are common with&nbsp;many other illnesses, making it&nbsp;difficult to diagnose at this stage. More&nbsp;specific symptoms include:<ul><li>Severe headache</li><li>Pain on bending the neck or neck stiffness</li><li>Sensitivity to light</li></ul>The symptoms also differ depending on the patient's age.&nbsp;In Infants, symptoms&nbsp;may include:<ul><li>Fever</li><li>Being fussy and crying constantly</li><li>Extreme weakness</li><li>High-pitched cry</li><li>Arching backwards</li><li>Bulging fontanelle (a fontanelle is a “soft spot” on the head where the skull have not fused)</li><li>Seizures</li><li>Nausea and vomiting</li></ul>For children older than one year, symptoms to look out for include:<ul><li>Fever</li><li>Neck stiffness</li><li>Poor appetite</li><li>Stupor</li><li>Seizures</li><li>Nausea</li><li>Decreased level of consciousness</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How is meningitis diagnosed in children?</h2>The tests usually prescribed&nbsp;in a child showing the suspected symptoms of meningitis include:<ol><li>Physical examination&nbsp;</li><li>Blood tests&nbsp;</li><li>Lumbar puncture (spinal tap)&nbsp;</li><li>Imaging tests (CT or MRI scan)&nbsp;</li><li>Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test&nbsp;</li><li>Cultures of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)&nbsp;</li><li>Rapid antigen tests&nbsp;</li></ol><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Treatment of meningitis in children</h2>Symptoms of viral meningitis usually resolve within 7 to 10 days. In children, viral meningitis typically resolves at home without needing a doctor's visit, although some cases may require hospital treatment.<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Treatment includes:</h3><ul><li>Rest</li><li>Fluids</li><li>Over-the-counter pain medications</li><li>Intravenous (IV) antibiotics (for bacterial meningitis)</li><li>IV fluids and electrolytes (to replace lost fluids)</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What&nbsp; is the outlook for a child with meningitis?</h2>The prognosis of meningitis in a child depends on&nbsp;several factors, such as the cause—bacterial or viral—the severity of the illness, and the child's age.Bacterial&nbsp;meningitis is a medical emergency. However, most children with bacterial meningitis recover completely with no&nbsp;long-term complications.&nbsp;The less common complications include developmental delays or learning disabilities, spastic or&nbsp;paralysed muscles and seizures.&nbsp;Unlike bacterial meningitis, most children with viral meningitis recover with no long term complications. The symptoms of viral meningitis usually&nbsp;improve within a week.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How to prevent meningitis in children</h2>There are several ways to prevent infection with the agents that cause meningitis. The more important ones include:<ul><li style="text-align:justify;">Vaccination</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Good hygiene practices</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Avoiding close contact with sick individuals</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Properly washing hands</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Covering mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Regular health check-ups</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Avoiding crowded places during outbreaks</li></ul>

Weak immunity and poor hygiene put children at high risk for meningitis. Here’s how to prevent this life-threatening infection.

Meningitis in Children in Low and Middle-Income Countries

Children's Health

The human heart pumps approximately 23,000 litres of blood throughout the body daily. Heart failure occurs when the heart fails to pump sufficient blood to meet the body’s needs.&nbsp;This article will explore the causes, prevention, and management of heart failure.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What is heart failure?</h2>Heart failure is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by your heart’s inability to pump blood sufficiently to meet your body’s needs.Initially, your body compensates for the inadequate blood supply through different mechanisms, such as:&nbsp;<ul><li>Enlargement of the heart: your heart stretches to generate a greater force to pump blood.</li><li>Increased heart muscle mass:&nbsp;your heart muscles expand to generate a stronger force of contraction.</li><li>Narrowing of the arteries: your arteries, the blood vessels that carry blood from your heart, may narrow to increase the contracting pressure to help your failing heart maintain arterial pressure.</li><li>Blood shunting: If heart failure is severe, the body may redirect blood from peripheral areas like the skin to vital organs like the heart, kidneys, and brain.</li></ul>Because of these compensatory mechanisms, you may not have symptoms initially. However, the compensation is temporary and may not solve the underlying problem.&nbsp;If the heart failure is not properly managed, the compensatory mechanisms may fail, and you may start to have symptoms like breathlessness, fatigue, persistent dry cough, and other signs of heart failure.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Signs and symptoms of heart failure&nbsp;</h2>Patients with&nbsp; heart failure may have signs and symptoms such as:&nbsp;<ul><li>Shortness of breath</li><li>Dry cough&nbsp;</li><li>Cold extremities with bluish lips</li><li>Pallor</li><li>Tiredness&nbsp;</li><li>Fatigue from&nbsp; minimum exertion</li><li>Swelling of the legs and/or abdomen from fluid retention</li><li>Poor appetite&nbsp;</li><li>Nausea&nbsp;</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Types of heart failure</h2>Heart failure can be classified based on the location of the failure and the type of heart function&nbsp;that fails.<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Heart failure types based on location</h3>You could have either a right-side heart failure or a left-side heart failure.<ul><li>Right-sided heart failure affects the right side of the heart, where the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs. When the right side fails, blood backs up into the veins, causing your legs, ankles, and abdomen to swell.</li><li>Left-sided heart failure occurs when the left ventricle can’t efficiently pump blood to the rest of the body. Fluid builds up in the lungs, causing shortness of breath.&nbsp;</li></ul>If the heart failure is from both the right and the left ventricles, it is called congestive heart failure.&nbsp;<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Heart failure types based on function</h3>Depending on which aspect of heart function that fails, you could experience either systolic heart failure or diastolic heart failure.<ul><li>Systolic heart failure happens when the heart can’t pump blood because it’s weak or enlarged.</li><li>Diastolic heart failure happens when the heart muscle doesn’t relax because it’s stiff, which leads to inadequate filling of the heart.</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Causes of Heart Failure in Africa</h2>The causes of heart failure in Africa vary across the continent, but the common causes among the general population include:&nbsp;<ul><li>Hypertension</li><li>Coronary artery disease (CAD)</li><li>Cardiomyopathy</li><li>Rheumatic heart disease</li><li>Chronic lung disease</li><li>&nbsp;Pericardial diseases like constrictive pericarditis, pericardial effusion</li><li>HIV</li></ul>Hypertension is the leading cause of heart failure in&nbsp; Nigeria.&nbsp;Unlike hypertension, coronary artery disease (CAD) and its complications are less common in Africa but are gradually becoming more prevalent due to:&nbsp;<ul><li>Lifestyle modifications,&nbsp;</li><li>Smoking&nbsp;</li><li>Drinking of alcohol</li><li>Urbanization</li></ul>Other causes of heart failure include:<ul><li>Excessive salt intake&nbsp;</li><li>Smoking or sniffing tobacco of any kind</li><li>Excessive alcohol intake</li><li>Infection&nbsp;</li><li>&nbsp;Use of certain medications like anticancer drugs, stimulants, etc.</li><li>Autoimmune diseases like lupus erythematosus&nbsp;</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Risk factors&nbsp;</h2>Risk factors for heart failure in sub-Saharan Africa include:<ul><li>Hypertension</li><li>Diabetes</li><li>Dyslipidaemia</li><li>Kidney disease</li><li>Smoking</li><li>High alcohol intake&nbsp;</li><li>Myocarditis</li><li>HIV</li><li>Pregnancy</li></ul>Other risk factors include:<ul><li>Rheumatic Heart Disease</li><li>Obesity</li><li>Dilated cardiomyopathy</li><li>Anaemia</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Diagnosis</h2>Your doctor will take your medical history, examine you, and ask you to do:&nbsp;<ul><li>A chest x-ray,</li><li>An ECG (electrocardiogram)</li><li>Blood test</li><li>Echocardiogram</li></ul>A heart MRI or CT scan, PET scan, or angiogram may sometimes be requested.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Treatment and Prevention of Heart Failure&nbsp;</h2>The treatment of heart failure depends on the cause of your heart failure and the type and severity of your heart failure.If the cause is hypertension, you may need to take anti-heart failure drugs plus anti-hypertensives and adjust your diet and lifestyle.&nbsp;If it’s an infection, you may need antibiotics.&nbsp;If the problem is with your heart valves, you may need surgery.If these treatments don’t work, a heart transplant may be recommended for you.Whatever the cause, heart failure management is both pharmacological and non-pharmacological.<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Pharmacological management</h3>This type of management includes drugs such as:<ul><li>Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB)</li><li>Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors</li><li>Angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors (ARNIs)</li><li>Diuretics</li><li>Vasodilators&nbsp;</li><li>Digitalis</li><li>Beta-blockers</li><li>Aldosterone blockers</li><li>Statins&nbsp;</li></ul>The drugs help to<ul><li>Reduce your blood pressure&nbsp;</li><li>Relax your blood vessels</li><li>Reduce the amount of fluid and sodium in your body&nbsp;</li><li>Strengthen the contraction of your heart muscles</li><li>Reduce your heart rate</li><li>Reduce the level amount of unhealthy cholesterol in your blood</li></ul><h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Non-pharmacological management</h3>This type of management does not include drugs. It only requires you to:<ul><li>Reduce your salt intake</li><li>Reduce your alcohol intake&nbsp;</li><li>Quit smoking</li><li>Exercise regularly as much as you can tolerate</li><li>Control your blood sugar if you’re diabetic&nbsp;</li><li>Reduce your body weight if you’re overweight or obese</li></ul>Heart failure caused by physical damage to the heart may require surgery, such as:<ul><li>Valvular repair or replacement</li><li>Device implantation</li><li>Heart transplantation</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Complications of Heart Failure</h2>If your heart failure is not treated at all or is treated poorly, it may lead to life-threatening complications like congestive heart failure, which is a failure of both the right and left sides of your heart. This causes worse and more dangerous symptoms.Other complications of heart failure include:<ul><li>Pulmonary hypertension&nbsp;</li><li>Kidney or liver damage</li><li>Cardiac arrest</li><li>Pulmonary oedema</li><li>Irregular heartbeat</li><li>Stroke</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What is the prognosis of heart failure?</h2>The outlook (prognosis) for heart failure is poor. People with the disease have a life expectancy of about five years from diagnosis, so it’s necessary to seek expert care as soon as you realise that your heart may be failing.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Conclusion</h2>Heart failure is better prevented than treated. Once it has begun, there is no permanent cure, and no treatment can reverse the damage.&nbsp;If you’re at risk, like if you are hypertensive, have diabetes or any other chronic disease, adjust your diet and lifestyle as recommended, and be regular with your drugs and clinical checkups.Having heart failure doesn’t mean the end of the world. You can still enjoy life if you follow the steps outlined in this article and your doctor’s advice.

When the heart is overworked, it struggles to keep up. Understanding why and how this happens can help you or a loved one stay healthy.

Heart Failure: Causes, Prevention and Management

<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Otitis_Media.png">BruceBlaus</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia CommonsOverviewOtitis media is&nbsp;inflammation of the tympanic membrane and middle ear. Approximately two-thirds of children of all ages are affected by otitis media.Key facts:<ul><li>Approximately 42 million people over the age of three years suffer hearing loss due to otitis media</li><li>90% of children experience this disorder before they enter the school system</li><li>Many attacks of otitis media spontaneously resolve within three months, but in 30% to 40% of children, the disorder becomes recurrent</li><li>Otitis media occurs in 75% of children at least three times in their frst three years of life.</li><li>Around 20,000 people, majorly children under 5 years of age, die every year with the associated complications.</li></ul>Otitis media, especially with a chronic and recurrent form, is associated with complications such as hearing loss, decreased learning capability, and low educational achievement.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Causes of otitis media in Africa</h2>Otitis media usually occurs as a result of acute upper respiratory tract infections. It can also be caused by&nbsp; allergies or abnormalities in the normal structure and function of the middle ear or Eustachian&nbsp; tube.&nbsp;The most important bacteria causes are<ul><li>non-typeable Haemophilus infuenzae</li><li>Streptococcus pneumoniae</li><li>Staphylococcus aureus</li><li>Streptococcus pyogenes</li><li>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</li><li>Proteus mirabilis</li><li>Escherichia coli, and</li><li>Moraxella catarrhalis</li></ul>P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and P. mirabilis are the commonest bacterial pathogens responsible for otitis media in sub-Saharan Africa.Viruses and&nbsp;fungi also cause otitis media.&nbsp;The occurrence of otitis media is directly related to the colonization rate of the nasopharynx by the bacteria. Viral upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), disrupts the mucociliary system, a system of thick secretions (mucus) from the airways and hairlike projections that sweep the mucus. The disruption of the mucociliary system impairs the host’s primary mechanical defense for bacterial invasion and predisposes children to acute otitis media (AOM).<h2>Types of otitis media</h2><ol style="list-style-type:decimal;"><li>Acute otitis media (AOM)<ul><li>Description: This type of middle ear infection starts suddenly, causing swelling and redness.</li><li>Symptoms: Fluid and mucus get trapped in the ear, leading to fever and ear pain.</li></ul></li><li>Otitis media with effusion (OME)<ul><li>Description: Fluid and mucus remain in the middle ear after an initial infection has subsided.</li><li>Symptoms: A sense of fullness in the ear, possible hearing impairment, or no symptoms at all.</li></ul></li><li>Chronic otitis media with effusion (COME)<ul><li>Description: Fluid stays in the middle ear for an extended period or keeps coming back without infection.</li><li>Symptoms: Difficulties in fighting new infections and potential hearing issues.</li></ul></li></ol><h2>Symptoms of a middle ear infection</h2><ol style="list-style-type:decimal;"><li>Ear pain:<ul><li>In older children and adults, there is ear pain.</li><li>Babies may rub or pull at their ears, cry more than usual, have trouble sleeping, or be restless and irritable.</li></ul></li><li>Loss of appetite:<ul><li>Especially noticeable in young children during bottle-feeding, as swallowing can increase ear pain due to pressure changes.</li></ul></li><li>Irritability:<ul><li>Persistent pain can cause irritability.</li></ul></li><li>Poor sleep:<ul><li>Pain can worsen when lying down due to increased ear pressure.</li></ul></li><li>Fever:<ul><li>Temperatures can range from 38°C to 104°F, and about half of the children with an ear infection also have a fever.</li></ul></li><li>Ear Drainage:<ul><li>Drainage of yellow, brown, or white (not earwax) fluid from the ear may indicate a ruptured eardrum.</li></ul></li><li>Hearing problems:<ul><li>Fluid behind the eardrum can slow down the movement of sound signals through the inner ear, affecting hearing.</li></ul></li></ol>These symptoms can resemble other conditions, so it's important to consult a healthcare provider for an accurate diagnosis.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Risk factors</h2>The risk factors for ear infections are:<ul><li>cultural, such as use of feathers to clean the ears,</li><li>socioeconomic, and environmental (e.g., living in crowded places, living in large families, the duration of breastfeeding, smoking status),</li><li>genetic (e.g., craniofacial anomalies such as those characteristic in Down syndrome and cleft palate),</li><li>nutritional like how the infant is fed: Babies who are bottle-fed, particularly when lying down, are more prone to ear infections compared to breast-fed babies.</li><li>medical (e.g., age, gender, race, health status, history of several acute otitis episodes, rhinorrhea, allergic rhinitis, seasonal rhinitis, snoring, upper respiratory tract infections, and adenoid hypertrophy).</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Diagnosis</h2>Diagnostic criteria for acute otitis media include:<ul><li>rapid onset of symptoms,</li><li>middle ear effusion, and</li><li>signs and symptoms of middle&nbsp;</li></ul>&nbsp;Antibacterial resistance in AfricaA high level of resistance was observed to commonly used antibacterial agents such as Ampicillin, cotrimoxazole, Amoxicillin, and Amoxicillin-clavulanate however, isolates were less resistant to Ciprofoxacin, Gentamycin, and Chloramphenicol.Thus, drugs like Ampicillin, amoxicillin, Amoxicillin-clavulanate, and cotrimoxazole should not be used as a first-line treatment in sub-Saharan countries since countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are commonly dependent on clinical data for treatment with the absence of microbiology laboratory. Without proper treatment, otitis media could lead to intracranial and intratemporal complications with higher and complex management.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Management and treatment of otitis media&nbsp;</h2>Treatment of ear infections depends on age, severity of the infection, the nature of the infection (is the infection a first-time infection, ongoing infection or repeating infection)&nbsp; and if fluid remains in the middle ear for a long period of time.Your healthcare provider will recommend medications to relieve your child’s pain and fever. If the ear infection is mild, depending on the age of the child, your healthcare provider may choose to wait a few days to see if the infection goes away on its own before prescribing an antibiotic.<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Antibiotics</h3>Antibiotics may be prescribed if bacteria are thought to be the cause of the ear infection. Your healthcare provider may want to wait up to three days before prescribing antibiotics to see if a mild infection clears up on its own when the child is older. If your or your child’s ear infection is severe, antibiotics might be started right away.<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Pain-relieving medications</h3>Over-the-counter pain relievers such as acetaminophen/paracetamol or ibuprofen can help relieve earache or fever. Pain-relieving ear drops can also be prescribed. These medications usually start to lessen the pain within a couple hours.&nbsp;Never give aspirin to children. Aspirin can cause a life-threatening condition called Reye’s syndrome.<h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Ear tubes (tympanostomy tubes)</h3>If your child has experienced frequent ear infections (three ear infections in six months or four infections in a year), had ear infections that weren’t resolved with antibiotics, or experienced hearing loss from fluid buildup behind the eardrum, he or she may be a candidate for ear tubes.&nbsp;Ear tubes are small tubes inserted into the eardrum to drain fluid from the middle ear, relieve the pressure there, and allow air to pass through. They provide immediate relief and are sometimes recommended for small children who are developing their speech and language skills.&nbsp;You may be referred to an ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialist for this outpatient surgical procedure, which is called a myringotomy with placement of tube. During the procedure, a small metal or plastic tube is inserted through a tiny incision (cut) in the eardrum. The tube lets air into the middle ear and allows fluid to drain.&nbsp;The procedure is very short — approximately 10 minutes — and there’s a low complication rate.&nbsp;The ear tube usually stays in place from six to 12 months. It often falls out on its own, but it can also be removed by your doctor. The outer ear will need to be kept dry and free of dirty water, until the hole in the eardrum heals completely and closes.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What can I do to prevent ear infections in my child?</h2><ul><li>Don’t smoke. Studies have shown that second-hand smoking increases the likelihood of ear infections. Be sure no one smokes in the house or car — especially when children are present — or at your daycare facility.</li><li>Control allergies. Inflammation and mucus caused by allergic reactions can block the eustachian tube and make ear infections more likely.</li><li>Prevent colds. Reduce your child's exposure to colds during the first year of life.&nbsp;</li><li>Maintain adequate hygiene. Don’t share toys, foods, drinking cups or utensils. Wash your hands frequently.&nbsp;</li><li>Breastfeed your baby. Antibodies in breast milk reduce the rate of ear infections.</li><li>Bottle feed baby at an upright angle. If you bottle feed, hold your baby in an upright angle (head higher than stomach). Feeding in the horizontal position can cause the fluids to flow back into the eustachian tube..</li><li>Watch for mouth breathing or snoring. Constant snoring or breathing through the mouth may be caused by large adenoids. These may contribute to ear infections. An exam by an otolaryngologist, and even surgery to remove the adenoids (adenoidectomy), may be necessary.</li><li>Get vaccinations. Make sure your child’s immunizations are up to date, including yearly influenza vaccine (flu shot) for those 6 months and older. Ask your doctor about the pneumococcal, meningitis and other vaccines too. Preventing viral infections and other infections help prevent ear infections..</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Complications of otitis media&nbsp;</h2>Although otitis media may&nbsp;occur without symptoms,&nbsp; complications mayexist. These include:<ul><li>delayed language and speech,</li><li>ruptured eardrum,</li><li>cholesteatoma, and</li><li>reading and writing impairment.&nbsp;</li></ul>Other complications are:<ul><li>mastoiditis,</li><li>meningitis,</li><li>acute labyrinthitis,</li><li>acute petrositis.</li></ul>

Ear infections can cause severe pain and missed school days for children. The good news? Proper hygiene can help prevent them.

Otitis Media in Africa: Causes, Risk Factors, Treatment, Prevention and Complications

<a href="https://pxhere.com/en/photo/1620710?utm_content=clipUser&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_source=pxhere">Image from PxHere</a>Alcohol consumption has become a normalized aspect of social culture in Nigeria and across Africa. Whether it is at celebratory events, gatherings with friends, or even just a casual drink after a long day, alcohol is a go-to for many people. However, excessive drinking can hurt the liver.While zero alcohol consumption is ideal for liver health, moderate intake is often considered safe. The&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nhs.uk/better-health/drink-less/#:~:text=Alcohol%20guidelines,risk%20of%20harming%20your%20health.">National Health Service</a> recommends drinking no more than 14 units of alcohol a week, spread across 3 days or more. That is around 6 medium (175ml) glasses of wine, or 6 pints, that is, 2.8 litres of beer with 4% alcohol by volume (ABV). There is no completely safe level of drinking, but sticking within these guidelines lowers your risk of harming your health. Consuming more than these limits, particularly binge drinking or taking in excess can raise the risk of Alcohol-Related Liver Disease (ARLD).Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a deadly condition affecting millions of people globally and is a growing concern in Nigeria and across Africa.&nbsp;A new report from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/25-06-2024-over-3-million-annual-deaths-due-to-alcohol-and-drug-use-majority-among-men#:~:text=A%20new%20report%20from%20the,deaths%20to%20psychoactive%20drug%20use.">World Health Organization (WHO)</a> reveals that 2.6 million deaths per year were attributable to alcohol consumption, accounting for 4.7% of all deaths, with more than 200 diseases and injuries linked to alcohol use. While<a href="https://gatefield.co/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Alcohol-Policy-Brief.pdf"> Alcohol policy in Nigeria</a> also noted that harmful alcohol use accounts for approximately. 3.3 million deaths annually and it is linked to over 200 non-communicable diseases.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What is alcoholic liver disease</h2>Alcoholic liver disease is a medical condition that occurs when the liver becomes damaged due to excessive and chronic alcohol consumption, leading to impaired liver function.&nbsp;The liver processes and detoxifies substances in the body and produces essential proteins. Impairment of these functions due to alcoholic disease can have severe consequences, including liver failure and even death.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">The stages of Alcoholic liver disease&nbsp;</h2>Alcoholic liver disease progresses through three key stages: fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, and cirrhosis. Each of these stages present with different symptoms, allowing for early interventions that can prevent further damage.<ul><li>Fatty liver&nbsp;is the first stage, where excessive alcohol consumption leads to fat buildup in the liver. This stage is often reversible with lifestyle changes if caught early.</li><li>Alcoholic hepatitis, the second stage, is marked by liver inflammation. This stage presents with more noticeable symptoms like abdominal pain and jaundice or yellowing of the eyes and mucous membranes.</li><li>Cirrhosis&nbsp;is the final stage, where the liver becomes permanently scarred, leading to severe complications and a higher risk of liver failure.</li></ul>Early detection during the fatty liver or alcoholic hepatitis stage allows for lifestyle changes and medical treatments, which can stop the disease from progressing to cirrhosis, which is irreversible and life-threatening.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Risk factors of ALD</h2>The risk factors for Alcoholic Liver Disease (ALD) include:<ul><li>Excessive alcohol consumption: long-term heavy drinking is the most significant contributor.</li><li>Gender: women are more likely to have alcoholic liver disease than men, even if they drink less alcohol.</li><li>Genetics: those with a parent or relative who has a history of liver disease have a greater risk.</li><li>Obesity: excess body weight can worsen the effects of alcohol on the liver.</li><li>Poor nutrition: alcohol impairs nutrient absorption, and a poor diet can worsen liver damage.</li><li>Co-existing liver conditions: an ongoing liver disease or infections like hepatitis B or C increase the chances of alcoholic liver disease.</li><li>Age – Older adults are at higher risk due to decreased liver regeneration capacity.</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Symptoms of Alcoholic Liver Disease</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_cd35024eab.png"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/depressed-man-holding-his-head-7927024/">Photo by Nicola Barts</a>The symptoms of alcoholic liver disease can vary depending on the severity of the condition. In the early stages, there may be no symptoms at all. As the disease progresses, you may experience the following:<ul><li>Fatigue</li><li>Loss of appetite</li><li>Nausea and vomiting</li><li>Abdominal pain and swelling</li><li>Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)</li><li>Confusion</li><li>Dark urine</li><li>Pale-colored stools</li><li>Weight loss</li><li>Easy bruising and bleeding</li></ul>You should see a doctor immediately if you experience any of these symptoms.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How is alcoholic liver disease diagnosed</h2>For the diagnosis of alcoholic liver disease, your doctor will begin by asking about your medical history and conducting a physical exam. They may also request blood tests to assess how well your liver is functioning. Imaging tests like an ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI can help detect liver damage, such as fat buildup or scarring.If more clarity is needed, your doctor might recommend a liver biopsy, where a small tissue sample is taken and examined under a microscope to check for damage.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">The treatment of alcoholic liver disease</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_e89d87bbb6.png"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-man-holding-medicine-container-11452186/">Photo by Towfiqu barbhuiya</a>The treatment of Alcoholic Liver Disease (ALD) focuses majorly on halting disease progression, managing symptoms, and promoting liver healing. The main steps in treating include:<ul><li>Alcohol cessation: The most critical step in treating ALD is to stop alcohol consumption. Continued drinking will worsen liver damage, while quitting can help stabilize or even reverse early-stage damage.</li><li>Nutritional support: Many individuals with ALD suffer from malnutrition, which can worsen liver health. A balanced diet with vitamins and minerals (like vitamin B, folate, and zinc) helps improve liver function and overall health.</li><li>Medications: In some cases, medications are prescribed to reduce inflammation and improve liver function. These treatments help manage symptoms and prevent complications.</li><li>Liver transplantation: For patients with advanced cirrhosis, a liver transplant may be the only option. However, patients must abstain from alcohol for an extended period to be considered for this procedure.</li><li>Counseling and support: Since ALD is tied to alcohol use disorder, counseling, therapy, and support groups like Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) are vital for long-term recovery.</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Alcohol Use Disorder</h2>Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a common condition that occurs in people with pre-existing alcoholic liver disease. It is a chronic brain disease that affects how a person processes and responds to alcohol.&nbsp;People with AUD may not experience ALD and can continue to drink despite the negative consequences, such as health problems and relationship issues.&nbsp;Treatment for AUD may include counseling, support groups, medication-assisted treatment, and other therapies.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Conclusion</h2>Excessive alcohol consumption which is typical in Nigerian and African social cultures, can lead to severe liver damage. The damage is gradual and may take years before it results in full-blown disease. Recognising the symptoms of liver damage early is essential for treatment success; the later stage is irreversible. Thankfully, the condition is manageable.

Drinking habits can take a toll on your liver. Find out how to protect yourself from alcoholic liver disease.

Liver Health and Alcohol: What You Need to Know

<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sickle_Cell_Disease_(27249799083).jpg">National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) from Bethesda, MD, USA</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0">CC BY 2.0</a> via Wikimedia CommonsEvery year, an average of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/41/161/full/#:~:text=Nigeria%20accounts%20for%20100%2C000%2D150%2C000,SCD%20from%20the%20global%20perspective.">150,000&nbsp;</a>children in Nigeria are born with sickle cell disease (SCD) widely referred to as sickle cell anaemia. About&nbsp;<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2672962/#:~:text=Abstract,it%20occurs%20in%20about%206%25.">25%&nbsp;</a>of the adult&nbsp;population carry the sickle cell trait.&nbsp;Sickle cell disease causes severe pain and other health complications&nbsp;that keep the&nbsp;carrier in and out of the hospital with recurring illness. Despite its impact on the lives of millions, sickle cell disease is often misunderstood and overlooked.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What is sickle cell disease?</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_273df3b483.png"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sickle_Cell_Anemia.png">BruceBlaus</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia CommonsSickle cell&nbsp;anaemia is a hereditary blood disorder that occurs when the body&nbsp;produces abnormal haemoglobin.&nbsp;The abnormal haemoglobin (HbS) works&nbsp;like the normal haemoglobin (commonly HbA) when the oxygen supply is optimal.&nbsp;But when oxygen supply is low, the haemoglobin molecules clump the red blood cells into stiff, sickle-shaped cells that get stuck in blood vessels, blocking oxygen flow,&nbsp; leading to pain, anaemia, tissue damage, and other complications.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How is sickle cell disease inherited?</h2>Sickle cell disease is an autosomal recessive disorder. This means that the father and mother of the child have to&nbsp;carry the sickle cell gene and then transmit it to their child before the child can develop the sickle cell disease.&nbsp;If the sickle cell gene comes only from one parent, the inheritance will lead to a sickle cell trait in the child.Children with sickle cell gene from both parents have HbSS genotype, and therefore produce only abnormal haemoglobin (HbS). This type of haemoglobin clumps into a polymer when the oxygen content is low, which causes red blood cells to sickle.On the other hand, those with the sickle cell trait (HbAS) have one copy of the normal haemoglobin genotype (HbA) and one abnormal copy (HbS). Such individuals produce normal and abnormal haemoglobin.&nbsp;The sickled red cells are weak and break down easily, leading to sickle cell anaemia. They can also clog blood vessels leading to painful episodes known as crises.&nbsp;Having a sickle cell trait means that, although you do not have the sickle cell disease, you may develop the symptoms in extreme conditions like strenuous exercise, high altitude, severe dehydration, or infection.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;">Signs and symptoms of sickle cell disease</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_1853e189f6.png"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-person-in-gray-shirt-and-blue-denim-jeans-14534511/">Photo by Towfiqu barbhuiya</a>The symptoms of sickle cell disease can vary in severity and frequency and range from mild to severe. They typically include:<ul><li>Episodes of anaemia (low level of red blood cells),</li><li>Joint and bone pain</li><li>Fatigue</li><li>Frequent and increased risk of infections</li><li>Shortness of breath</li><li>Yellowing of the eyes and body</li><li>Delayed growth and development</li></ul>Some individuals may also experience sudden and severe pain, known as a sickle cell crisis, caused by the blockage of blood flow in blood vessels.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Complications of sickle cell disease</h2>Sickle cell disease can cause severe complications if it is not properly managed. Frequent sickle cell crisis, for instance, can trigger acute chest syndrome or avascular necrosis of the head of femur, a condition that leads to the death of the thigh bone.Other complications of sickle cell disease can include:<ul><li>Stroke</li><li>Lung damage</li><li>liver damage</li><li>Eye damage</li><li>Skin ulcer</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How to diagnose sickle cell disease?</h2>If you suspect you or your child may have sickle cell disease, it is important to get a proper diagnosis.&nbsp;The diagnosis typically involves a blood test to determine the presence of sickled red blood cells or defective haemoglobin&nbsp;types.&nbsp;Haemoglobin electrophoresis can then be used confirm the diagnosis of sickle cell disease. This test detects the presence of abnormal or sickle haemoglobin and diagnoses the specific type of sickle cell disease.&nbsp;A newborn screening test can also detect the disease in infants, but this may require high-tech equipment that are available only at specialised centres. Haemoglobin electrophoresis is not useful for screening newborns because they have fetal haemoglobin which masks the presence of abnormal haemoglobin.&nbsp;Other tests, such as a complete blood count and blood&nbsp;film examination, can also provide important information about the disease's severity and the individual's overall health.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How can you avoid sickle cell disease?&nbsp;</h2>You can avoid sickle cell disease by:<ul><li style="text-align:justify;">Getting tested: Knowing your sickle cell disease status will help you confirm your compatibility with your spouse and plan your family effectively.</li><li>Educating yourself and others: Spread the word about sickle cell disease, its risk factors, and the importance of testing.</li><li>Encouraging others to get tested: Encourage family and friends to get tested, especially if they are considering starting a family.</li><li>Supporting research and advocacy: Donate to organizations working to&nbsp;find a cure for the disease and improve treatment options.</li></ul>Sickle cell disease&nbsp; is a serious condition, but it doesn't have to be a reality for future generations. By raising awareness and preventing its spread, we can help build a healthier and brighter future for all Africans.How is sickle&nbsp;cell&nbsp;disease treated?Sickle cell disease is managed with is a multi-disciplinary approach that includes:&nbsp;<ol><li style="text-align:justify;">Pain management: medications are used during sickle cell crisis to relieve pain while rehydration prevents the blood from sickling, thus reducing the pain.&nbsp;</li><li>Blood transfusions: Regular blood transfusions can help maintain haemoglobin levels and reduce the frequency of crises.</li><li>Hydroxyurea treatment: This&nbsp;medication increases the production of fetal haemoglobin, which can help reduce the frequency of crises, and the need for regular transfusions</li><li>Antibiotics: To prevent infections, patients are given prophylactic antibiotics.</li><li>Vaccinations: Patients with sickle&nbsp; cell disease tend to be vulnerable&nbsp; to infections due to their lower immunity.&nbsp; Vaccinations prevent these infections.</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Stem cell transplant: replacing sickle cells with normal ones via a stem cell transplant is a highly effective way to treat sickle cell disease. However, this is an expensive and high-risk procedure.</li><li>Gene therapy: This is a new and developing&nbsp;field in sickle cell disease treatment, aiming to correct the genetic defect causing the disease.</li></ol>Living with sickle cell disease is painful and draining, but these&nbsp; practical tips can help you navigate and cope with the physical and emotional demands of the disease.<ul><li>Manage pain with medication and other therapies such as hydration, rest, and exercise.</li><li>Build a strong support system of family, friends, and medical professionals</li><li>Connect with others who have the disease and seek educational resources</li><li>Take care of yourself mentally and emotionally, and seek out counseling if needed</li><li>Follow a balanced diet, avoid triggers like stress and dehydration, and</li></ul>maintain regular medical checkups<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;">Planning a Family?&nbsp;</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_c89b46ece0.png"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-couple-in-a-psychotherapy-session-7579120/">Photo by Antoni Shkraba</a>If you're planning to start a family, you must be aware of the risk of&nbsp;sickle cell disease . Here are what you can do to protect your future children:<ul><li>Get tested: Know your haemoglobin genotype and ask your partner&nbsp;of theirs.</li><li>Speak to a genetic counsellor: A&nbsp;genetic counsellor will help you understand your risk and compatibility profile and the options available to you.</li><li>Consider antenatal screening: Antenatal screening can help detect the disease in a developing fetus.</li></ul>Taking these steps and being proactive can help reduce the risk of SCD and ensure a healthy future for your family. So start planning today and take control of your family's health!<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Conclusion</h2>Sickle cell disease is a debilitating condition affecting millions worldwide, particularly in Africa and its diaspora. Understanding the disease, its inheritance, and its&nbsp;management is crucial in improving outcomes and quality of life for those affected. It is important to work with your healthcare provider to&nbsp;find the treatment plan that works best for you. Remember, early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes for individuals living with sickle cell disease.

With expensive treatments available, prevention remains the best way to combat sickle cell disease.

Sickle Cell Disease 

<a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/text-6823763/">Photo by Artem Podrez</a>When people talk about diabetes, they often mean diabetes mellitus, which is a group of related disorders&nbsp;that&nbsp;are characterised by&nbsp;hyperglycaemia or excess sugar in the blood. But&nbsp;that is not the only type of diabetes we have. There is also diabetes insipidus, where the body produces&nbsp;excess urine, causing you to lose too much water. We’ll focus on diabetes&nbsp;mellitus in this article.&nbsp;Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterised by high&nbsp;blood glucose levels or hyperglycaemia. It occurs either because the body cannot produce insulin (type 1 diabetes) or because the body cannot use insulin effectively (type 2 diabetes).Diabetes is often seen as a disease of adults and the elderly. However, it is getting more common in children. The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) estimates that there were more than one million children and adolescents under 20 with diabetes in 2019.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Type 1 vs Type 2 diabetes</h2>We mentioned earlier that type 1 diabetes mellitus is the most common type of diabetes in children, but children also have type 2 diabetes. The difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes is primarily in their origin.Type 1 diabetes&nbsp;occurs when the body’s immune system&nbsp;attacks and destroys the cells that produce insulin&nbsp;in the pancreas.&nbsp;The reason for these attacks on the cells is not clear, but experts suggest that genetic factors and viral infections may cause it.&nbsp;In&nbsp;type&nbsp;2 diabetes, the body either does not produce enough insulin or the organs are not sensitive enough to the present and circulating insulin, leading to&nbsp;excess sugar in the blood.3 out of 100,000 children in Nigeria have type 1 diabetesThe International Diabetes Federation also&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worlddiabetesfoundation.org/news/nigeria-promises-free-treatment-for-children-with-diabetes/#:~:text=The%20recorded%20incidence%20of%20type,)%20and%20Zimbabwe%20(0.8).">estimates</a> that about 3 (2.9) out of 100,000 children between the ages of 0 to 14 in Nigeria have type 1 diabetes mellitus.&nbsp;Children with diabetes have common risk factors, and these include:&nbsp;<ul><li>Family history of diabetes</li><li>Certain genetic mutations</li><li>Environmental factors like exposure to viruses&nbsp;</li><li>Obesity</li><li>Diet</li><li>Level of physical activity</li><li>Steroid therapy</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How do you know that your child has diabetes?</h2>Diabetes in children has similar symptoms as diabetes in adults, but since children, especially infants and preschool children, can’t explain their symptoms, parents have to pay extra attention.Symptoms to watch out for include:<ul><li>Excessive thirst&nbsp;</li><li>Frequent urination</li><li>Poor cry and weakness</li><li>Increased appetite</li><li>Excess weight gain</li><li>Poor wound healing</li><li>Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet</li></ul>The symptoms are similar for both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, but type 2 symptoms develop later and slower. See a paediatrician immediately if you suspect your child has any of these symptoms.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Diagnosis of diabetes requires expert evaluation</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_27436ce5d6.png"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-glucometer-over-documents-7653093/">Photo by Pavel Danilyuk</a>Although laboratory tests may show that a child has high glucose levels in their blood, that alone is not sufficient to say that the child is diabetic. Your doctor will take the child’s medical history, evaluate their signs and symptoms, and then order some laboratory tests to confirm the diagnosis.&nbsp;These tests include:<ul><li>Random or fasting blood glucose estimation</li><li>Random or fasting serum glucose estimation</li><li>Oral glucose tolerance test</li><li>HbA1C test</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Management of diabetes depends on the type</h2><h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Type 1 diabetes&nbsp;</h3><ul><li>Lifetime insulin therapy</li><li>Regular blood glucose monitoring</li><li>Balanced diet</li><li>Regular exercise</li><li>Mental health support</li><li>Mother and child education</li></ul><h3 style="margin-left:0cm;">Type 2 diabetes&nbsp;</h3><ul><li>Low carbohydrate and fat diet</li><li>Balanced diet&nbsp;</li><li>Regular exercise</li><li>Oral antidiabetic medication</li><li>Insulin therapy</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Diabetes complications can be life-threatening</h2>Children with diabetes often present late to hospitals, especially after they have developed complications. Some of these complications include:<ul><li>Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)</li><li>Hypoglycaemia</li><li>Diabetic retinopathy</li><li>Diabetic nephropathy</li><li>Cardiovascular diseases</li><li>Infections</li></ul>These complications may manifest as:<ul><li>Nausea</li><li>Vomiting</li><li>Abdominal pain</li><li>Fruity breath</li><li>Sudden chest pain</li><li>Blurred vision</li><li>Loss of consciousness</li></ul>Early diagnosis and management, coupled with good blood glucose control, can prevent or delay the onset of these complications.&nbsp;<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">You can delay or prevent the onset of diabetes</h2>The auto-immune nature of type 1 diabetes makes it challenging to prevent, but you can prevent or delay the onset of type 2 diabetes with some pretty basic steps.<ul><li style="text-align:justify;">Encourage your child to eat healthy diet</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Regular physical activity</li><li>Maintaining a healthy weight</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Limiting screen time</li><li>Regular check-ups</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">What can the government do?</h2>The&nbsp;government&nbsp;is vital in implementing policies and programs that promote diabetes education, prevention, and management.&nbsp;Firstly, the government can allocate funds to support research and development of new treatment methods and technologies for diabetes management in children. This research can help improve the understanding of diabetes, leading to better prevention, diagnosis, and treatment for young patients.Secondly, the government can implement policies that promote healthy lifestyle choices for children. This can include providing nutritious meals in schools, promoting physical activity, and restricting the availability of unhealthy food choices. Such policies can help reduce the risk of diabetes in children and promote healthy living habits.The government can also provide education and awareness programs for parents and caregivers of young children with diabetes. These programs can offer guidance on&nbsp;managing diabetes at home, including monitoring blood glucose levels, administering insulin, and&nbsp;controlling hypoglycaemia.SummaryDiabetes affects children, too, and the number of children it affects is on the rise. The risk factors for diabetes in children include junk diet, obesity, prolonged screen time, little or no physical activity, parents with diabetes, and more. The onset of diabetes can be avoided with dietary and lifestyle adjustments; children with confirmed diabetes must visit a doctor for expert management.&nbsp;Diabetes is a chronic disorder that can be difficult to manage, especially the type 1 variety. Children with the disease may need lifetime management. This can be expensive and discomforting for the child. Parents must watch out for the risk factors and avoid them as much as possible. Please see a doctor if you have any concerns.

Diabetes isn’t just an adult disease; it affects children, too. Spotting early symptoms and taking preventive steps could be life-saving.

Diabetes in Children

<a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/close-up-shot-of-a-glucometer-7653102/">Photo by Pavel Danilyuk</a>The numbers are scary: about&nbsp;<a href="https://www.idf.org/our-network/regions-members/africa/diabetes-in-africa.html#:~:text=14/12/2021-,24%20million%20adults,-(20%2D79)">24 million</a> adults who are 18 and older had diabetes in 2021; the number is set to increase to 55 million by 2045, and more than half of people living with diabetes do not know that they have the disease.While diabetes is not a death sentence, it is a significant cause of life-threatening complications such as heart diseases, stroke, blindness, kidney disease, foot ulcers, urinary tract infections in women, erectile dysfunction in men, and so on. Knowing what diabetes is all about can help you make safe choices to protect yourself and perhaps manage the risks.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;">Diabetes is a chronic disease</h2>Diabetes is a chronic condition that develops when the body cannot&nbsp;control blood sugar, either because it cannot use the insulin the pancreas makes or because&nbsp;the pancreas does not&nbsp;produce enough&nbsp;insulin.Uncontrolled diabetes frequently causes hyperglycaemia, or elevated blood sugar, which over time seriously harms many bodily systems, including the&nbsp;nerves and blood vessels. Diabetes caused&nbsp;<a href="https://www.idf.org/our-network/regions-members/africa/diabetes-in-africa.html#:~:text=is%20responsible%20for-,416%2C000%20deaths,-in%20the%20IDF">416,000 deaths across the</a> world in 2021.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Type 1 versus type 2 diabetes</h2>The primary&nbsp;difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes is that type 1 is a genetic illness that&nbsp;usually occurs in childhood. When you have type 1 diabetes, your immune system attacks and kills the cells in your pancreas that&nbsp;make insulin. In contrast, type 2 is primarily a result of lifestyle choices and develops over time.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;">Type 1 diabetes</h2>Deficient insulin production is a hallmark of type 1 diabetes, sometimes&nbsp;called insulin-dependent, juvenile, or childhood-onset. This condition requires daily insulin injections.&nbsp;In type 1 diabetes, the body attacks the pancreatic beta cells, impairing their capacity to make insulin. High blood sugar levels result from the cells' inability to absorb glucose in the absence of sufficient insulin.&nbsp;Children are most frequently affected by type 1 diabetes.Symptoms of type 1 diabetes include:<ul><li style="text-align:justify;">frequent urination (polyuria)&nbsp;</li><li style="text-align:justify;">excessive thirst (polydipsia)</li><li style="text-align:justify;">persistent hunger&nbsp;</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Weight loss</li><li style="text-align:justify;">poor vision</li><li style="text-align:justify;">exhaustion</li></ul>These signs&nbsp;often appear suddenly and worsen over time if the high blood sugar is not well controlled.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Type 2 diabetes</h2>Type 2 diabetes, also known as non-insulin-dependent or adult-onset diabetes,&nbsp;occurs when the body cannot use insulin adequately. Most&nbsp;people with diabetes worldwide suffer from type 2 diabetes, and the common risk factors include being overweight and&nbsp;physically inactive.&nbsp;The disease is more common in adults.&nbsp;Insulin resistance, which is a complication of type 2 diabetes, affects how well your body recognizes insulin. Without a sufficient insulin response, it becomes more difficult for your cells to absorb glucose, which causes blood sugar levels to increase.&nbsp;While symptoms are frequently less severe than those of&nbsp;type 1 diabetes, they may be comparable. As a result, the condition may not be discovered until after its onset, when complications have already developed. This particular type of diabetes was previously only observed in adults, but it is becoming increasingly seen in kids.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Is it true that black people are more likely to have diabetes?</h2><img src="https://tenbadgers-myhealthvoice.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/image_3a34b0752f.png"><a href="https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/high-angle-diabetic-woman-checking-her-glucose-level_65609368.htm#fromView=search&amp;page=1&amp;position=18&amp;uuid=59225968-f83e-4428-bf10-e35698027a57">Image by freepik</a>One reason millions of Africans have diabetes is that black people are more likely to have the disease than non-blacks. This increased risk are linked to:<ul><li>Gene-dependent factors</li></ul>Some researchers suggest that the “thrifty gene”, which helps certain groups to conserve energy and nutrients during scarcity, is a potential reason why black Americans had higher diabetes rates than other ethnic groups.<ul><li>Health-related factors</li></ul>Obesity and reduced physical activity are linked to increased emergence of type 2 diabetes among blacks.<ul><li>Social factors</li></ul>Poverty is a significant risk factor for diabetes. In a 2014 study, researchers studying the relationship between diabetes prevalence and poverty found that the rates of diabetes were greater among blacks but particularly higher in poor folks.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Diabetes during pregnancy</h2>Gestational diabetes is a type of hyperglycemia that develops during pregnancy. It may cause the child to die before birth, and make the child grow so big that delivery may be difficult.Prenatal screening is used to determine gestational diabetes rather than patient complaints of symptoms.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;text-align:justify;">Diabetic neuropathy</h2>Persistent increase in blood glucose levels can damage nerves, leading to diabetic neuropathy.&nbsp;&nbsp;This condition is common to both type 1 and&nbsp;type 2 diabetes.Nerve damage numbs some parts of the body, especially the feet, causing loss of sensation and sometimes pain. People who lose sensation are most likely to get ulcers on their feet, which, if not detected early, can lead to foot amputation.&nbsp;However, you can reduce your risk of developing nerve damage by keeping your blood sugar level at your target range or as close to normal as possible and practicing careful foot care.<h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How do you reduce your chances of developing diabetes?</h2>Type 1 diabetes is not preventable. On the other hand, you can minimize your chance of having type 2 diabetes even if you have a higher risk than average for the condition by:<ul><li>Modifying your diet</li></ul>Eat a well-balanced diet&nbsp;with less sugars, reduced fats, and more fresh fruits and vegetables. Fill your plate with whole meals, including whole grains, lean meats, and healthy fats. Avoid eating food that is heavy in calories and fat.<ul><li>Exercising regularly</li></ul>Aim to get at least 30 minutes of physical exercise. Commit to taking 6,000 steps per day. Walk around the house or jog a few hundred metres. Skip a rope or do what you can to keep your heart pumping or make you break a sweat for a moment. Doing these will help you shed excess blood sugar and keep the level low.<ul><li style="text-align:justify;">Going for regular medical checkups</li></ul>See your doctor at least twice a year. Diabetes raises your odds of heart disease. So learn your numbers: cholesterol, blood pressure, and A1c (average blood sugar over&nbsp;three months). Get a&nbsp;complete eye exam every year. Visit a foot doctor to check for problems like foot ulcers and nerve damage.<ul><li>Managing stress</li></ul>Stress causes your body to release hormones that increase blood sugar levels. Relieve that stress by seeking help where necessary, delegating your tasks, saying no to stressful commitments, or engaging in hobbies that help you relax.Other steps that can reduce your risk include:<ul><li style="text-align:justify;">Reducing your alcohol intake</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Quit smoking</li><li style="text-align:justify;">Managing your body weight</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">How can you tell if you have diabetes?</h2>Symptoms of diabetes take time to appear, and by that time, complications might have set in. A safer way to know your diabetes status is to monitor your blood sugar level.Blood sugar testing is an important part of early diabetes diagnosis and diabetes care. If you have diabetes, commit to checking your blood glucose levels. It will help you manage diabetes and prevent complications.&nbsp;There is no fixed number of times you should check your blood sugar level. The frequency of testing will depend on the type of diabetes and your treatment goals.&nbsp;The different types of tests that could tell if you have diabetes are:Fasting blood glucose testAn 8–12 hour fast is required for a fasting blood glucose test, and the results could show:<ul><li style="text-align:justify;">Less than 100 mg/dL shows a normal range</li><li>From 100 to 125 mg/dL shows signs of prediabetes</li><li>Greater than 125 mg/dL on two occasions is a sign of diabetes</li></ul>Oral glucose tolerance testAn oral glucose tolerance test measures your blood sugar levels over two hours following the consumption of a sweet beverage. Test results for oral glucose tolerance may show:<ul style="list-style-type:disc;"><li>Standard range: blood glucose level less than 140 mg/dL</li><li>Prediabetes: blood glucose level between 140 and 199 mg/dL</li><li>Diabetes: blood glucose level greater than 200 mg/dL</li></ul>A1C testAn A1C test measures your average blood sugar control over the previous two to three months. It may show:<ul><li>Standard range: less than 5.7%</li><li>Prediabetes: 5.7% to 6.4% of the total</li><li>Diabetes: above 6.4%</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Treatment of diabetes</h2>Diabetes is treated by a balance of healthy diet, regular exercise,&nbsp;and other steps to reduce blood sugar levels, and&nbsp;manages the risk factors for&nbsp;complications. Interventions that are both practical and affordable in developing nations include<ul><li>Blood glucose management with lifestyle and dietary adjustment, insulin, and oral medications</li><li>Blood lipid management&nbsp;</li><li>Screening and management of&nbsp;diabetes complications</li></ul><h2 style="margin-left:0cm;">Final words</h2>Millions of people in Africa have diabetes, and many more millions are set to have the disease. Many people do not know their diabetes status because they do not check their blood sugar levels regularly and because diabetes symptoms do not appear early. You can protect yourself by adjusting your diet and lifestyle.

Millions live with diabetes, yet in Africa, many cases go undiagnosed. Learn how to assess your risk and take steps to prevent this growing health concern.