Dr Udoh WisdomEarly detection of cervical cancer is key to effective treatment, making regular Pap smear screenings essential.The HPV vaccine, now available in three different versions, provides crucial protection against the virus that often leads to cervical cancer.<h3>Early Stages</h3>In its early stages, cervical cancer typically does not present any symptoms, making early detection challenging. Symptoms often emerge only after the cancer has progressed.When early-stage cervical cancer symptoms do manifest, they may include:<ul><li>Irregular vaginal bleeding or heavier menstrual periods</li><li>Vaginal bleeding after menopause</li><li>Vaginal bleeding post-intercourse</li><li>Unusual vaginal discharge that may be watery, foul-smelling, or blood-stained</li><li>Pelvic pain or discomfort during intercourse</li></ul>As cervical cancer advances, symptoms may encompass those of early-stage cancer, along with:<ul><li>Painful or difficult bowel movements</li><li>Bleeding from the anus during bowel movements</li><li>Painful urination</li><li>Blood in the urine</li><li>Persistent lower back pain</li><li>Swelling in the legs</li><li>Abdominal pain</li><li>Fatigue</li></ul>These symptoms can also be found in other conditions other than cervical cancer. Consulting a Doctor is essential for an accurate diagnosis. Delaying treatment for cervical cancer due to ignored symptoms can lead to less effective management.

Preventing cervical cancer starts with the HPV vaccine and regular screenings. Learn symptoms, stages, treatment options, and support resources.

Stages and Prevention of Cervical Cancer in Nigerian Women

Women's Health

Because only women have a Cervix, cervical cancer affects women in the cervix, the lower, narrow end of the uterus that connects to the vagina.<ul><li>Around 660,000 women were newly diagnosed with cervical cancer in 2022, making it the fourth most common cancer in women globally.</li><li>Cervical cancer is a largely preventable non-communicable disease, with effective strategies available for primary (vaccination), secondary (early detection), and tertiary (management of diagnosed cases) prevention.</li></ul>Everyone talks about Cancer and almost always generally. Breast cancer, lung cancer, and prostate cancer, these were familiar terms. Not much or anything at all is ever said about cervical cancer.&nbsp;<h3>What is Cervical Cancer?</h3>Cancer is a group of diseases where some of the body's cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body.<ul><li>It accounts for death every two minutes and nearly 22.5% of those deaths occur in Africa.</li><li>About 8% of the cancer is associated with infections with high-risk strains of human papillomavirus (HPV)</li><li>More than &nbsp;75,000 new cases and close to 50,000 deaths are reported annually in sub-Saharan Africa</li><li>The World Health Organization projects that by 2030, cervical cancer will claim the lives of more than 443,000 women worldwide, with almost 90% of these fatalities in sub-Saharan Africa.</li></ul>A surge in cervical cancer cases threatens to reverse the advancements made by African women in reducing maternal mortality and enhancing life expectancy.&nbsp;<h1>What causes Cervical Cancer?</h1>The primary cause of cervical cancer is a long-lasting infection with specific types of human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is a transmitted virus that spreads through sexual contact.Doctors estimate that at least half of sexually active individuals will contract HPV at some point in their lives; however, only a small percentage of women will develop cervical cancer.<h3>Who is at risk for cervical cancer?</h3>Cervical cancer is often associated with identifiable risk factors. Some of these factors can be modified, while others are beyond your control.Here are some risk factors you can control:<ul><li>Sexual intercourse at an early age:</li><li>HPV infection</li><li>HIV infection</li><li>Weakened immune system</li><li>Multiple pregnancies</li><li>Long term use of birth control pills</li><li>Smoking: Cigarette smoking has been linked to a heightened risk of cervical cancer.</li></ul>While these risk factors are controllable, some are not. Example of an uncontrollable risk factor:<ul><li>Family history</li><li>Age</li></ul><h2>How is cervical cancer diagnosed?</h2><img src="https://codahosted.io/docs/k8T9__Kot0/blobs/bl-yrISdcM-gw/49e6af9051a463d1579b8ac42b143c3ae429cf4600c661c8f3e78a62beb3fe9f87ad0f1e9a05b170bc0c3347f027558941ff4c974545d332c26725c961d4c97e11ef404daab8e95695f6e95daa537dd662479fedbe37a9d5528cfa04bac7979b72e593f6" alt="image.png">&nbsp;Her gynecologist had told her that her last heavy flow was due to something called an <a href="https://www.osmosis.org/answers/anovulatory-cycle">anovulatory cycle</a>, which happened because when she had her period her ovaries did not release an egg and It was “nothing to worry about”.&nbsp;So when it happened again in June, she didn’t think much of it until it refused to stop after the expected 3 - 5 days. Mrs B bled for days.&nbsp;She returned to the hospital and had several tests done. A full blood count, an ultrasound scan, her PCV, which indicates the blood level in her body, was normal. The abdominal ultrasound done didn’t show anything abnormal. The labs looked through her results and found nothing extraordinary. Until she did a urinalysis, and they discovered red blood cells in her urine.The doctor again reassured her and recommended she go for a biopsy, where a tiny cut of her cervix will be taken and viewed with a microscope. The biopsy report came back and the unimaginable had happened: Mrs B had cervical cancer.&nbsp;The urinalysis done &nbsp;in the lab, the red blood cells found in her urine, how did they know what it was? Why was her urine unusual today of all days?Cervical cancer develops slowly over many years, hence the need for regular Pap smear.A Pap smear is a process that screens for cervical cancer by collecting cervical cells from the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It can also reveal precancerous changes in these cells, enabling early intervention when required.The doctor explained to Sola that in the test, the nurse uses a speculum to gently open the vagina, providing access to the cervix. They then collect cell samples using a soft brush or spatula, which they preserve in a solution and send to a laboratory for analysis.The entire process typically takes just a few minutes and may cause slight discomfort, but it is usually not painful.To detect early signs of cancer, if positive, a biopsy is ordered.The biopsy could be any of the following:<ul><li>Colposcopic biopsy</li><li>Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP)</li><li>Cone biopsy</li><li>Endocervical curettage</li><li>Cold knife cone biopsy</li></ul>An HPV DNA test too can be ordered.When the biopsy test comes out as positive, further investigations would be required to determine if the cancer has spread (metastasized) and to what extent.The other test include:<ul><li>Renal function test</li><li>Liver function test</li><li>X-ray of bladder, bowels, intestines</li><li>Urine Test</li><li>Ultrasound</li></ul><blockquote><h3>Support Groups -</h3>Cancer changes dynamics of life for patient and family.Joining a cancer support group can provide emotional relief and connection with others facing similar challenges. Sharing experiences can help alleviate feelings of isolation.</blockquote>

How many women can identify their Cervix? Cervical cancer is a leading cause of death among women, yet it’s preventable and treatable. Find out how to protect yourself.

Cervical Cancer Cases in Nigerian Women.

Pre-eclampsia is a complication of pregnancy that affects about <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.05.18.22275250v1.full">5–8%&nbsp;</a>of all pregnant women in Nigeria and Africa. It is a leading cause of maternal and infant morbidity and mortality in Nigeria and Africa.The International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy <a href="https://isshp.org/the-definition-of-severe-and-early-onset-preeclampsia-statements-from-the-isshp/">defines</a> pre-eclampsia as hypertension that occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy with one or more of proteinuria (protein in the urine) and abnormalities in organ function.The symptoms of pre-eclampsia can be subtle and may not appear until late in pregnancy, which is why it is often referred to as the “silent killer” of pregnant women.<h2>Causes of pre-eclampsia</h2>The exact cause of pre-eclampsia is unknown. However, research suggests that pre-eclampsia may result from problems with the blood vessels in the placenta may cause it.The placenta is the organ that connects the baby to the mother's blood supply. In pre-eclampsia, the blood vessels in the placenta become narrowed, which can decrease blood flow to the baby.<h2>Signs and symptoms of pre-eclampsia</h2>Pregnant women with pre-eclampsia may present with:<ul><li>High blood pressure</li><li>Protein in the urine</li><li>Swelling in the face, hands, and feet</li><li>Sudden weight gain</li><li>Headaches</li><li>Vision changes</li><li>Abdominal pain (you can say epigastric pain)</li><li>Nausea and vomiting</li></ul>It is important to note that these symptoms may not always be present, and some women may not experience any symptoms at all. That is why pregnant women should attend all their antenatal appointments and have their blood pressure and urine checked regularly.<h2>Pre-eclampsia may hurt the mother and baby</h2>Untreated pre-eclampsia can lead to premature birth, low birth weight, and even stillbirth. In addition, pre-eclampsia can cause severe damage to the mother's organs, such as the liver and kidneys, and increase the risk of stroke and other complications such as eclampsia.<h2>Who is at risk of pre-eclampsia?</h2>Several risk factors can increase a woman's chances of developing pre-eclampsia. These include:<ul><li>First-time pregnancy</li><li>Age (women over 40 are at higher risk)</li><li>Multiple pregnancies (i.e., women carrying multiple babies like twins, triplets etc.)</li><li>Obesity</li><li>A family history of pre-eclampsia</li><li>Chronic hypertension</li><li>Diabetes</li><li>Kidney disease</li><li>Lupus</li></ul>Also, a woman is more likely to get pre-eclampsia again if she has had it during a previous pregnancy.Studies have shown that pre-eclampsia happens more often in Africa than in other parts of the world. This is likely due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

No pregnant woman should have to worry about pre-eclampsia. Understanding the risks can help ensure a safe pregnancy.

What Every Nigerian Woman should know about Pre-eclampsia

Human blood belongs to one of four main blood groups: A, AB, B, and O. Each of these groups can also be positive or negative for the Rhesus factor, which means you can have an A positive or an A negative blood, just as you can have for AB, &nbsp;B, and O blood groups. But what does this grouping mean to you, and why should you care?<h2>Blood antigens and antibodies</h2>Blood grouping is based on the presence or absence of antigens and antibodies in your blood. Antigens are proteins found on the red cell surface, while antibodies are natural proteins in plasma.An antigen triggers your immune system to generate antibodies. The antibodies alert your body to destroy the antigens they recognise as foreign.Red blood cells have different types of antigens used to group them. The most commonly recognised blood groups are:<ul><li>The ABO blood grouping system</li><li>The Rhesus (Rh) blood grouping system</li></ul><h3>ABO system</h3>In the ABO system, the blood group is based on the presence or absence of the A and B antigens. There are four blood groups in this grouping system.<ul><li>Group A - has A antigen and anti-B antibody</li><li>Group B - has B antigen and anti-A antibody</li><li>Group AB - has both A and B antigens but no antibodies</li><li>Group O - has no antigens but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies</li></ul>Group O blood is the most common blood group in Nigeria. More than half of Nigerians (53%) have group O blood. Very few (less than 4%) have group AB blood.According to the ABO grouping system, your body tolerates the antigens in your blood and produces antibodies against the antigens you do not have.<h3>ABO blood compatibility</h3>The ABO blood grouping determines who you can donate blood to or receive blood from. This is known as blood compatibility or the capacity of blood from two individuals to combine without destroying each other.Blood transfusion can safely be done only between two compatible blood groups. This means you must only receive blood your body will not react to.For example, if you have blood group A, your safest option is to receive blood group A. If you receive blood from an incompatible blood group, say group B, your anti-B antibodies will attack the B antigens on the donor red cells, which could be life-threatening.A safer option will be to receive group O blood. Because the group O blood has no antigen, it can safely be given to people with any other blood group.The ABO blood grouping compatibility is summarised as follows:<ul><li>Group A: individuals with this blood group can donate to individuals with group A or AB blood but can receive blood only from individuals with group A or O blood.</li><li>Group B: individuals with this blood group can donate to individuals with group B or AB blood but can receive blood only from individuals with group B or group O blood.</li><li>Group AB: individuals with this blood group can donate only to individuals with group AB blood but can receive blood from any other blood group.</li><li>Group O: individuals with this blood group can donate to individuals with any blood group but can receive blood only from individuals with group O blood..</li></ul><h3>Rh system</h3>In the Rh blood grouping system, the blood group is classified depending on the presence of the Rhesus (Rh) factor. The Rh factor is coded for by the D antigen. So if your blood has the Rhesus factor, you are Rhesus-D positive (RhD-positive). If it does not, you are Rhesus-D negative (RhD-negative).The ABO and Rhesus grouping systems are often taken together to give your blood type. That means your blood group can be one of the following:<ul><li>O-negative (O-)</li><li>O-positive (O+)</li><li>A-negative (A-)</li><li>A-positive (A+)</li><li>B-negative (B-)</li><li>B-positive (B+)</li><li>AB-positive (AB+)</li><li>AB-negative (AB-)</li></ul>Individuals with AB-positive blood are considered universal recipients because they can receive blood from any other blood group, while a person with type O-negative blood is considered a universal donor because their blood can be safely given to anyone.<h3>Rhesus compatibility</h3>Rhesus compatibility is not often considered in blood group grouping and crossmatching for blood transfusion, but the compatibility between a pregnant woman and the foetus is is very important.A child can inherit the Rhesus-D antigen from either the mother or father. If the mother is RhD-negative but the child is RhD-positive due to inheritance of Rhesus-D antigen from the father, there will be Rhesus incompatibility between the mother and child.The mother may produce anti-D antibodies that react with the child’s RhD antigens, causing severe complications for the child. This is preventable. Speak with your obstetrician or gynaecologist to discuss the preventions if you are a RhD-negative mother.<h3>How to check your blood group</h3><img src="https://codahosted.io/docs/RFnoaIhszt/blobs/bl-KPoc-F91zM/99da81c8e83d1e78c80740560405f0e9439d66968b6b95d5c19a384a542758c9854337ff45b581f79256b7e73496d0062c3fa94dc84cc3fc6fbdaf5a07979cc0fb71433bd49d7e92dae47f8f9f655bb20dac12a9d1ec8386349bea2dcd7153740a6cdff9" alt="image.webp"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ics-codablock-blood-bag_sample.jpg">ICSident at German Wikipedia</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0">CC BY-SA 3.0</a>, via Wikimedia CommonsYou can check your blood group by visiting a registered laboratory. A laboratory scientist will collect your blood and test it for the blood group antigens that we've outlined.The scientist will tie a tourniquet around your wrist or arm and insert a syringe into a vein to collect your blood into a sample bottle or syringe.Your red blood cells will then be mixed with reagents containing antibodies against the common red cell antigens. That is, anti-A and anti-B antibodies—a third reagent containing anti-D antibody test0s for Rhesus-D (RhD) antigen.The nature of the reaction between your red blood cells and the reagents determines your blood group. Remember, blood group antigens will react with their corresponding antibodies.Therefore, if you have A antigens on your red blood cells, they will react with anti-A antibody reagents and clump together. The reaction will appear like pellets. If the antigens on your red blood cell are different from the antibodies in the reagent, they will not react; your blood will remain fluid.If your blood reacts to anti-A and anti-B antibody reagents, it means you have blood group AB. Individuals with blood group O do not have antigens on their red blood cells, so their blood does not react with anti-A and anti-B antibodies.<h2>Conclusion</h2>Knowing your blood group is important for safe blood transfusion and pregnancy. It helps you to avoid or prevent severe complications that may affect individuals receiving blood transfusion or newborns. It is also important during emergencies as it will ensure timely treatment. Your knowledge could help you determine your susceptibility to certain diseases and your ancestry. Check your blood group today.

Your blood type isn’t just for transfusions—it can also influence your health risks and pregnancy outcomes.

Does Your Blood Group Really Matter?

From gonorrhea to syphilis, STDs are common, but they are preventable. Learn how to protect yourself and others.

#Women

Stages and Prevention of Cervical Cancer in Nigerian Women

Cervical Cancer Cases in Nigerian Women.

What Every Nigerian Woman should know about Pre-eclampsia

Does Your Blood Group Really Matter?

Sexually Transmitted Diseases